When you visit Rome, you will inevitably notice the vast number of historical buildings that bear witness to the history of the "thousand-year-old city". Examples include the Roman Forum, the Colosseum, Castel Sant'Angelo (the former mausoleum of Emperor Hadrian) and, perhaps not so well known, Trajan's Column, although the latter is actually the most interesting of all of those mentioned for those interested in military history. It bears clear witness to an important chapter in Roman history, the Dacian Wars. This column is nothing other than Emperor Trajan's war diary, which depicts how he triumphed over his enemies. It is the most important surviving source of this era, as the Dacians had no writing system of their own to write down their own history.
Trajan's Column circa 1896
In 155 scenes with over 2500 human figures showing Romans marching, building, fighting and Dacians negotiating, pleading and dying, the 38-meter-high Trajan's Column bears witness to the subjugation of the Dacians by the Romans. Built as a propaganda tool, it still testifies to the power and military strength of Rome today. And yet battles are depicted on less than a quarter of the frieze and Emperor Trajan himself is never seen in battle. Instead, the legionaries build bridges and roads and even help with the harvest. The column thus portrays the Romans as a force for order, as a bringer of civilization, not destruction.
Looking at the column, you might think that Rome is invincible, because not a single dead Roman soldier is immortalized on the relief band. Instead, the column underlines the enormous size of the Roman Empire, as can be seen in the friezes, but African cavalrymen with dreadlocks, Iberian slingers, Levantine archers with pointed helmets, Germanic tribesmen with bare torsos and in trousers, which must have seemed at least exotic to the toga-wearing Romans, as such trousers were considered uncultured and a sign of a lack of civilisation in the Roman Empire. And yet their wearers could become citizens of Rome if they served in the auxiliary troops and thus acquired Roman citizenship.
If you look closely at the column, you can also see evidence of Dacian culture on it, even though Rome considered the Dacians to be pure barbarians. However, current excavations at Dacian sites in what is now Romania are revealing more and more new traces of a much more advanced civilisation than the derogatory term "barbarians" that the Romans used for the Dacians would suggest. They bear witness to the fact that Dacia was a strong regional power over the centuries. The Dacians raided their neighbours, demanded tribute and appropriated their knowledge and, of course, valuables. They mastered the art of metalworking, mining, iron smelting and gold panning, and they made richly decorated jewellery and weapons. Evidence of this can be found in the ruins of Sarmizegetusa.
Sarmizegetusa was the political and spiritual centre of the Dacian Empire. The ruins of the city lie high up in the mountains of central Romania. In Trajan's time, the 1,600-kilometre journey from Rome would have taken at least a month, and even today the journey there is still arduous, as visitors have to cross the same inhospitable valley as the Roman armies once did on an unpaved road full of potholes. And the sheer size of the complex is also impressive, as it stretched over more than three square kilometres.
Sarmizegetusa Regia, also Sarmisegetusa, was the capital and the most important military, religious and political centre of the Dacians. Erected on top of a 1,200 metre high mountain, the fortress was the core of the strategic defensive system in the Orăştie Mountains (in present-day Romania), comprising six citadels. Sarmizegetusa Regia was the capital of Dacia prior to the wars with the Roman Empire.
But why the wars? Of course, it was about power, influence and resources, as always in history. If you briefly summarize the history of the Dacian War in the years 85/86 under Emperor Domitian (Emperor 81 - 96) and its course, it sounds something like this:
Dacia, in the area of today's Romania, was actually an ally of Rome, but did not want to have Rome constantly interfere in its own affairs. The situation quickly got out of control: Moesia's governor fell, his army was wiped out, Emperor Domitian's reputation suddenly sank among the neighbouring peoples, who refused to support him in the fight against Dacia. The Praetorian Prefect Cornelius Fuscus took command, but he fell in battle; the Dacians drove the legions back across the Danube, and it was not until 89 AD that Domitian agreed to peace with Dacia's new king Decebalus. Officially a victory, Rome nevertheless paid subsidies as compensation, which Decebalus used to diligently expand his recently destroyed fortresses, something Rome would later regret. The peace was not lasting and the next conflicts were already looming.
Dacian Falxmen
Emperor Trajan (Emperor 98 - 117), the adopted son of the older and childless Emperor Nerva (Emperor 96 - 98), also needed a convincing military success to legitimize his rule. Although the Romans believed that an emperor could only wage "just wars", the behavior of the Dacian king Decebalus gave him the reason to go to war. Decebalus was accused of violating the terms of the peace treaty of 89, although the deeper reasons for this were probably the threat to the stability of the Danube border and the security of the Roman Balkan peninsula against the power structure of the Dacian Empire.
The rich gold and ore deposits in Dacia may have been another incentive to conquer the country, although this aspect should not be overestimated.
Trajan began his reign in Germania, where he was staying when his adoptive father Neva died, and where he stayed for another two years to secure the northern border of the empire in Germania. He made enormous efforts in the area of infrastructure, building roads and fortifications here too.
But he was also active in the Danube region, which many later saw as preparation for war, for example he completed the straightening of the southern Danube road, an artificial road that had already been started under Tiberius (Emperor 14-37) through the rocky regions on the southern bank of the Danube in the area of the Iron Gate. Since the rapids of the Iron Gate also posed a major problem for shipping, a 3.2 km long and 30 m wide ship canal was also built in this area.
In 101, Trajan's First Dacian War (101/102) began when his troops crossed the Danube at Lederata using a pontoon bridge and advanced into enemy territory. Trajan's army consisted of 7 legions and numerous auxiliary units. They advanced slowly, as Trajan was keen to secure the conquered territory during his advance. The only field battle of this campaign took place at Tapae, as Decebalus had avoided an open confrontation up to that point.
However, Decebalus managed to withdraw his troops in an orderly manner when the Dacian defeat became foreseeable. And the fighting that year ended with Trajan succeeding in stopping the Dacian offensive in the area of the lower Danube.
In the spring of 102, fighting began again. After losing three field battles, Decebalus had to admit defeat. He offered his submission, but managed to negotiate relatively favourable conditions in the subsequent negotiations, allowing him to keep the highlands and thus his heartland, even if he had to demolish his fortresses again.
Trajan did not achieve a convincing victory in this campaign, however; his troops were exhausted and the negotiated peace was the best he could manage. As a result of the treaty, the Romans expanded their presence in Dacia and built two large military camps as well as a 1.2 km long bridge over the Danube near Drobeta in 103-105, a masterpiece of ancient architecture.
Roman Legion
Both rulers, Trajan and Decebalus, were aware that this was only an interim peace, and so both undertook extensive rearmament. Decebalus rebuilt his fortresses and Trajan continued to expand the army and infrastructure. Despite this, or perhaps precisely because of this, Decebalus undertook a pre-emptive strike against the Roman positions in his territory in 105, where he managed to capture several auxiliary camps, but failed to storm the large legionary camp at the site of the later Colonia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa. However, he managed to capture the Roman commander Pompeius Longinus by means of a ruse. However, he evaded arrest by committing suicide and thus could not be used as a means of pressure against Trajan. In response to the fighting in 106, Trajan led 15 legions and numerous auxiliary units into Dacia, more than twice as many soldiers as during the first invasion, which meant that Decebalus was confronted with overwhelming Roman superiority and was no longer able to conduct offensive operations.
Roman Commanders
The Romans systematically advanced against Sarmizegetusa and rejected an offer of surrender from Decebalus, so that the Dacian king was soon forced to abandon Sarmizegetusa.
In a remote fortress, he tried to organize the last resistance, but had to flee again and was caught and captured by a Roman cavalry troop.
Dacia's proud ruler spared himself the humiliation of surrender. "Decebalus took his own life when his capital and his entire territory were occupied and his imprisonment was threatened," wrote the Roman historian Cassius Dio. Nevertheless, his head was handed over to Trajan by the leader of the small cavalry troop, Tiberius Claudius Maximus, and later brought to Rome, for which Maximus was later promoted to decurion.
This section of the column's relief shows two Roman soldiers presenting the severed heads of enemies to Trajan
All this and much more is depicted on Trajan's Column. At the top of Trajan's Column there is a snapshot of the outcome of the war: a village set on fire, Dacians fleeing, cows and goats left behind. The victors took bitter revenge. The Romans destroyed the most sacred Dacian temples and altars. Tens of thousands must have died in the two wars. A contemporary claimed that Trajan took 500,000 prisoners and brought them to Rome, where they were supposedly supposed to take part in gladiatorial fights during the 123-day victory celebrations.
It is astonishing how much history and stories such a simple column, which seems rather inconspicuous next to the Colosseum or the Roman Forum, can tell. It gives us an insight into the equipment and armament of both the Romans and their auxiliary units, as well as their opponents. It bears witness to the difficulties of a military campaign, the necessary construction of roads in impassable terrain, the procurement of supplies, but also the horrors of war, and yet it is a fascinating testimony to history that shapes our image of the Roman legionaries. The legionaries on the individual friezes always wear the Roman tracked armour we know from all historical films, the Lorica segmentata.
In addition, it offers us the opportunity to play out exciting battles, from dangerous river crossings on makeshift bridges to large open field battles in ancient Dacia, with colourful figures in our peaceful living rooms.
I hope I was able to entertain you a little with this little article and would be happy to welcome you back here soon.
See you soon, Martin